Justice in Criminal Law
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Hoven, E., Weigend, T. (Eds.) (2026). Justice in Criminal Law. Global Perspectives. Duncker & Humblot. https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-59449-8
Hoven, Elisa and Weigend, Thomas. Justice in Criminal Law: Global Perspectives. Duncker & Humblot, 2026. Book. https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-59449-8
Hoven, E, Weigend, T (eds.) (2026): Justice in Criminal Law: Global Perspectives, Duncker & Humblot, [online] https://doi.org/10.3790/978-3-428-59449-8
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Justice in Criminal Law
Global Perspectives
Editors: Hoven, Elisa | Weigend, Thomas
(2026)
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Abstract
What does it mean to achieve »justice« in criminal law? The editors of this volume have approached this question by presenting vignettes of ten »hard cases« in criminal law to jurists from 16 jurisdictions worldwide, asking for their assessment. This volume contains the reports written by these experts. They explain how the laws of their jurisdictions as interpreted by courts and scholars would resolve each of the ten problems represented in the vignettes. The responses to each vignette are analyzed in Synopses which describe similarities and differences between national perspectives and draw conclusions from comparing them. The findings are summarized in the editors’ Concluding Observations. They suggest that some general ideas of justice in criminal law are indeed shared across legal systems, but that they do not necessarily lead to the same outcomes when applied to specific cases. Similarities appear more in the way judges and scholars argue than in the results at which they arrive.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Table of Contents | 5 | ||
| I. Elisa Hoven / Thomas Weigend: Introduction | 7 | ||
| II. National Reports | 9 | ||
| 1. Andrew Dyer/Michael Peng/Thomas Crofts/Arlie Loughnan: Australia | 9 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 9 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 13 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 17 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 19 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 24 | ||
| a) Liability | 24 | ||
| b) Sentencing | 27 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 28 | ||
| a) What is the precise ambit of the surgical exception? | 29 | ||
| b) Cases falling outside the scope of the surgical exception | 31 | ||
| c) The immediate case | 32 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 34 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 38 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 43 | ||
| b) Delay: An enlivening factor for a permanent stay? | 44 | ||
| c) Managing delay with jury directions | 45 | ||
| d) The likely outcome in D’s case | 46 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 47 | ||
| 2. Frank Verbruggen/Pieter Van Rooij: Belgium | 52 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 52 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 54 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 58 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 60 | ||
| Vignette 5: Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 63 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 65 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 67 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 68 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 72 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 76 | ||
| 3. Carla Sepúlveda Penna: Chile | 79 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 79 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 81 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 83 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 85 | ||
| a) Persistent Aggression | 86 | ||
| b) Proportionality Requirement: Rational Need of the Means Employed | 87 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 90 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 92 | ||
| a) Attempts and Dolus Eventualis | 92 | ||
| b) General Efficacy of the Withdrawal | 93 | ||
| c) “Extra-Legal Intentions” | 93 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 94 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 97 | ||
| a) General Justification for the Existence of Limitation Periods for the Prosecution of Crimes | 98 | ||
| aa) Traditional Debate | 98 | ||
| bb) Recent Approaches | 98 | ||
| b) Special Justification for the Extended Period to Prosecute Rape | 99 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 99 | ||
| a) The Aims of Punishment | 100 | ||
| b) The Principle of Proportionality | 101 | ||
| c) Fundamental Rights, the Prohibition of Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Punishments, and the Principle of Humanity | 102 | ||
| 4. Zhiwei Tang: China | 104 | ||
| Introduction | 104 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 104 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 107 | ||
| a) Objective Aspect | 107 | ||
| aa) Theory of Adequate Causation | 107 | ||
| bb) Theory of Objective Attribution | 108 | ||
| cc) Theory of Realization of Behavioral Risk | 108 | ||
| b) Subjective Aspect | 109 | ||
| aa) Determination of Intent | 109 | ||
| bb) Subjective Attribution | 109 | ||
| (1) Subjective Attribution as a Supplement to Objective Attribution | 109 | ||
| (2) Subjective Attribution Replacing Objective Attribution | 110 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 110 | ||
| a) Not Punishable | 111 | ||
| aa) Justification Based on Self-Defense | 111 | ||
| bb) Justification Based on (Defensive) Necessity | 111 | ||
| cc) Excuse Based on Supra-Legal Necessity | 112 | ||
| b) Punishable | 112 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defense | 113 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offenses | 116 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 119 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 121 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 123 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 126 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 128 | ||
| Conclusion | 130 | ||
| 5. Sam J Cole/Steven Cammiss/John J Child: England and Wales | 132 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 132 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 133 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 134 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 134 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 135 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 137 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 137 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 138 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 139 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 139 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 141 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 142 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 142 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 143 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 143 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 144 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 145 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 146 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 147 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 147 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 148 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 149 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 151 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 152 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 153 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 154 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 154 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 155 | ||
| a) Doctrinal Application | 157 | ||
| b) Widening Debate | 157 | ||
| 6. Kimmo Nuotio: Finland | 159 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 159 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 161 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 163 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 165 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 166 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 167 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 168 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 171 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 171 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 172 | ||
| 7. Thomas Weigend/Elisa Hoven: Germany | 175 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 175 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 177 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 179 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defense | 183 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offenses | 185 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 187 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 189 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 191 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 193 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 195 | ||
| 8. Mordechai Kremnitzer: Israel | 198 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 198 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 200 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 201 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defense | 204 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offenses | 206 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 207 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 208 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 209 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 210 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 210 | ||
| 9. Gian Marco Caletti/Paolo Beccari: Italy | 213 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 213 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 214 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 215 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defense | 216 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offenses | 218 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 219 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 220 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 221 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 221 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 222 | ||
| 10. Tomoko Utsumi: Japan | 224 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 224 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 226 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 228 | ||
| a) Urgency | 229 | ||
| b) Wrongfulness of the Attack | 230 | ||
| c) Reasonableness of the Defensive Act | 230 | ||
| d) Intent to Defend | 230 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defense | 230 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offenses | 232 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 234 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 236 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 237 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 239 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 241 | ||
| 11. Pilisano Masake/Inonge Mainga: Namibia | 244 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 244 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 245 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 247 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 248 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 251 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 254 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 255 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 256 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 257 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 259 | ||
| 12. Johan Boucht: Norway | 262 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 262 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 264 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 265 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 268 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 270 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 272 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 273 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 275 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 276 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 276 | ||
| 13. Alicja Limburska/Konrad Lipiński: Poland | 279 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 279 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 280 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 282 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 283 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 285 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 286 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 288 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 289 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 290 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 292 | ||
| 14. Wing-Cheong Chan: Singapore | 295 | ||
| General Introduction | 295 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 295 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 297 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 298 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 301 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 302 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 304 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 306 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 306 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 307 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 307 | ||
| 15. Ali Emrah Bozbayındır/Rifat Murat Önok: Turkey | 309 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 309 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 311 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 314 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defence | 317 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 319 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 323 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 324 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 328 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 330 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 332 | ||
| 16. Sara Sun Beale: U.S.A. | 335 | ||
| Vignette 1: Trolley Problem– Killing one Person to Save Many | 335 | ||
| a) New York | 336 | ||
| b) Kentucky | 337 | ||
| Vignette 2: Attribution of Death | 337 | ||
| a) The Common Law Approach– California | 337 | ||
| b) The MPC Approach– Pennsylvania | 338 | ||
| Vignette 3: Torture to Save a Life | 341 | ||
| a) Objective Reasonableness– New York | 341 | ||
| b) Mixed Objective and Subjective Approaches– California and Illinois | 342 | ||
| aa) California | 342 | ||
| bb) Illinois | 343 | ||
| Vignette 4: Lethal Self-Defense | 344 | ||
| a) The Model Penal Code | 344 | ||
| b) Variations in State Law | 345 | ||
| Vignette 5: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offenses | 347 | ||
| Vignette 6: Limits of Consent | 350 | ||
| a) Pennsylvania | 350 | ||
| b) North Carolina | 351 | ||
| c) California | 352 | ||
| Vignette 7: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 353 | ||
| a) The Traditional Common Law– California | 353 | ||
| b) The Model Penal Code Approach– New York | 353 | ||
| c) A Narrower Renunciation Defense– Arizona | 354 | ||
| Vignette 8: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 355 | ||
| a) Minimum Ages of Prosecution | 356 | ||
| b) Transfer to Adult Criminal Court | 356 | ||
| c) Public Opinion and Legal Change | 357 | ||
| Vignette 9: Statute of Limitations | 358 | ||
| a) No Applicable Statute of Limitations | 358 | ||
| b) Applicable Statutes of Limitations with Exceptions for DNA Evidence | 359 | ||
| c) Lesser Crimes | 359 | ||
| Vignette 10: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 360 | ||
| a) LWOP and the Federal Constitution | 360 | ||
| b) LWOP and State Constitutions | 361 | ||
| aa) Age-Related Restrictions | 361 | ||
| bb) Offense-Related Restrictions | 362 | ||
| c) The American Law Institute’s Recommendations | 362 | ||
| III. Synopsis | 365 | ||
| 1. Gian Marco Caletti: Trolley Problem – Killing one Person to Save Many? | 365 | ||
| Vignette 1 | 365 | ||
| a) Introduction | 365 | ||
| b) Comparing the Trolley Dilemma with Other Traditional Cases of Necessity | 365 | ||
| c) Establishing Actus Reus and Mens Rea | 367 | ||
| d) Defences: Debate on Necessity between Justification and Excuse | 367 | ||
| e) Some Possible Origins of a “Kantian” Approach | 369 | ||
| f) Final (and Provocative) Considerations | 369 | ||
| 2. Paolo Beccari: Attribution of Death | 371 | ||
| Vignette 2 | 371 | ||
| a) Attribution of Death: A First Re-Reading of the Case | 371 | ||
| b) Two Theories on Causation in Criminal Law and the Notion of “Abnormal Risk” | 371 | ||
| c) Subjective Attribution as a Supplement to Objective Attribution (?) | 375 | ||
| d) Brief Concluding Reflections | 378 | ||
| 3. Mordechai Kremnitzer: Torture to Save a Life | 379 | ||
| Vignette 3 | 379 | ||
| a) The Final Result | 379 | ||
| b) The Offence | 379 | ||
| c) Discussion | 380 | ||
| d) The Distinction between Justification and Excuse | 382 | ||
| e) The Scope of the Absolute Prohibition Against Torture | 383 | ||
| f) Reference to Public Opinion | 383 | ||
| g) Reference to Implications and History | 383 | ||
| h) A Summary | 383 | ||
| i) The Nature of the Case | 384 | ||
| j) My View | 384 | ||
| 4. Johan Boucht: Lethal Self-Defence | 385 | ||
| Vignette 4 | 385 | ||
| a) Introduction | 385 | ||
| b) Self-Defence as a Justification | 385 | ||
| c) Excessive Self-Defence as an Excuse | 388 | ||
| d) Conclusion | 389 | ||
| 5. Ali Emrah Bozbayındır/Rifat Murat Önok: Criminal Responsibility of Subordinates for Systemic Offences | 391 | ||
| Vignette 5 | 391 | ||
| a) Introduction | 391 | ||
| b) Classification as a Crime against Humanity | 391 | ||
| c) Possible Defences | 392 | ||
| aa) Superior Orders and Mistake of Law | 393 | ||
| bb) Duress | 396 | ||
| d) Mitigating Factors in Sentencing | 397 | ||
| e) Concluding Remarks | 398 | ||
| 6. Frank Verbruggen/Pieter van Rooij: Limits of Consent | 399 | ||
| Vignette 6 | 399 | ||
| 7. Alicja Limburska/Konrad Lipiński: Withdrawal from an Attempt | 403 | ||
| Vignette 7 | 403 | ||
| 8. Sara Sun Beale: Criminal Responsibility of Minors | 407 | ||
| Vignette 8 | 407 | ||
| 9. Carla Sepúlveda Penna: Statutes of Limitation | 410 | ||
| Vignette 9 | 410 | ||
| a) Quantitative Summary | 410 | ||
| b) Specific Mechanisms: Mandatory vs. Discretionary | 411 | ||
| c) Attitudes towards the Effect of the Passage of Time | 413 | ||
| d) Legal Change and Trends | 414 | ||
| e) What about the Values of Justice? | 416 | ||
| 10. Andrew Dyer: Life Imprisonment without Parole | 418 | ||
| Vignette 10 | 418 | ||
| a) Introduction | 418 | ||
| b) The Position in the Surveyed Jurisdictions | 421 | ||
| c) What Explains the Different Attitudes to “Life Without Parole”? | 426 | ||
| d) Conclusion | 431 | ||
| IV. Thomas Weigend: Concluding Observations | 433 | ||
| Methodological Similarities | 433 | ||
| Similarities and Differences in Outcome | 434 | ||
| Policy Decisions in Vignette Cases | 434 | ||
| Factors Explaining Policy Differences | 437 | ||
| Policy Decisions on Sanctioning | 441 | ||
| Conclusion | 441 | ||
| V. List of Contributors | 443 |